Policy And Direction: The First Year

This volume describes the initial direction and strategy of the first major though limited war that the United States was to fight on the continent of Asia in the era of global tension that followed World War II. There are marked similarities as well as some basic differences between the war in Korea and the war that would follow a decade later in Southeast Asia, and certainly the study of both is necessary to understand the limitations on armed conflict under the shadow of nuclear holocaust. One can also discern in this volume the importance of individuals in altering the course of human events and the fate of nations, the wider concerns that preclude the massing by a world power of its military strength in one direction, and many other facets of the nation's recent military history it behooves all thoughtful Americans to ponder.

Colonel Schnabel's work is the third to appear in a planned 5-volume history of the United States Army in the Korean War. It complements the detailed account of operations from June to November 1950, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, published in 1961, and the sequel to it still in preparation that will cover tactical operations through June 1951. The volume entitled Truce Tent and Fighting Front, published in 1966, covers the last two years of the war, and a logistical history of the Korean conflict is also scheduled to appear.

Both military and civilian students and the scholarly reading public should find in this book much that is illuminating and provocative of reflection, and not only about events that happened more than two decades ago.

James F. Schnabel enlisted in the U.S. Army in July 1942 and, after graduation from officer candidate school, the Field Artillery School, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Remaining in the service after World War II, he was assigned, as a captain, to the Military History Section, GHQ, FEC, in late 1949. He served as a historian in Tokyo until 1953, transferring in May 1953 to the Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, in Washington, D.C., where he remained until 1956. From 1956 until 1960 as a lieutenant colonel he held the post of Chief Historian, Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers, Europe, and Allied Command Europe stationed in Paris, France. In 1960 he returned to the Office, Chief of Military History, and became Historical Liaison Officer to the Office of the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army. He retired from the Army in 1964 and is presently a historian with the Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

A graduate of North Idaho Teachers College, Colonel Schnabel has published several articles on the Korean War and has appeared as a guest lecturer at the Army War College.

This book is intended to elucidate United States policy during the Korean War and to describe the strategies and command methods by which that policy was carried out. The major decisions that determined the United States course in Korea and continued to influence the nation's responses to Communist aggression during the two decades that followed were taken during the first twelve months of the Korean fighting. Although the war continued for another two years, no significant change was made in the policy developed between President Truman's decision to intervene in June 1950 and the beginning of Armistice negotiations at Kaesong in July 1951. This book concentrates on that initial period.

One of the unique aspects of the Korean War was the close control which Washington maintained at all times over operations in the field. Routine transactions and problems which during World War II would have been handled by a theater commander became, during Korea, matters of great concern to the nation's highest officials in Washington. These exceptional practices were owing in large part to the scarcity of United States military resources when the war began and to the real danger that a miscalculation in Korea might result in a full-scale war with the Soviet Union and/or Communist China. The vast distance between Washington and the Far East served to hinder effective, timely communication, further complicating the problems of directing the war.

I was not aware of it at the time, but work on this book began three days after the North Korean invasion when I, as an Army captain of artillery assigned to the Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC, in Tokyo, was called to General MacArthur's personal file room in the Dai Ichi Building to examine copies of first teleconferences between CINCFE and Washington. Notes taken that day marked the beginning of nearly three years of research in Tokyo and, briefly, in Korea. Upon my return to Washington in mid-1953 I was designated to prepare the present volume. The first draft of this work was submitted to the Office, Chief of Military History, in June 1956 concurrently with my transfer to Paris, where I served until June 1960 as Chief Historian, SHAPE and Allied Command Europe. Returning to the Office of the Chief of Military History in July 1960 I was able, although assigned additional duties, to make revisions indicated as a result of the intensive review and criticism of the manuscript that had taken place in my four-year absence. Following my retirement from the Army in August 1964 further revision was performed by Mr. Billy C. Mossman and by Dr. Stetson Conn, then Chief Historian.

So many individuals have contributed to the present volume that it would be impossible for me to thank all of them publicly. There are those, however, to whom I owe special debts of gratitude. During the early years of my work on this history I received particular encouragement and very wise counsel from Col. Allison R. Hartman, then Chief, Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC. Among those outside critics who have reviewed all or part of the manuscript in its various stages and to whom I am indebted for valuable comments and ideas are General J. Lawton Collins, General Matthew B. Ridgway, Lt. Gen. Edward M. Almond, Mr. Robert Amory, formerly Deputy for Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, and Mr. Wilber W. Hoare, Jr., Chief, Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Other individuals within the Office of the Chief of Military History whose help and advice have been exceptionally valuable to me include the Editor in Chief, Mr. Joseph R. Friedman, whose literary guidance has contributed greatly in the final revision of the manuscript; Mr. Charles V. P. von Luttichau, who is responsible for the fine maps which accompany the text; Dr. Louis Morton and Dr. John Miller, jr., for their suggestions and criticism while they were with the Office of the Chief of Military History; Mr. David Jaffe, whose diligence and skill as an editor I have good reason to appreciate; and Mrs. Stephanie B. Demma, who rendered most able assistance to Mr. Jaffe. The index was prepared by Mr. Nicholas J. Anthony.

Finally, I would be remiss were I not to recognize gratefully the support I received from the several Chiefs of Military History under whom I served during the preparation of this volume: Maj. Gen. Orlando Ward, Maj. Gen. Albert C. Smith, Brig. Gen. James A. Norell, Brig. Gen. William H. Harris, and Brig. Gen. Hal C. Pattison.

That I have acknowledged the contributions made by those persons named above in no way implies that they share responsibility for the interpretations of this book or for any deficiencies that it may have. Responsibility for them is mine alone.

Contents Forward The Author Preface I. KOREA, CASE HISTORY OF A PAWN ................................ 1 The Land ................................................... 1 Korea's Past ............................................... 2 The United States and Korea ................................ 3 Korea 1945 ................................................. 6 The New Zones .............................................. 11 II. THE HOUSE DIVIDED ............... ............................ 13 The Americans Occupy South Korea ........................... 13 The Russians in North Korea ................................ 23 The United States Seeks a Solution ......................... 25 Withdrawal From Korea ...................................... 28 Building a Native Defense Force in South Korea ............. 31 North Korea Prepares ....................................... 36 Situation in Korea-June 1950 ............................... 38 III. NATIONAL DEFENSE AND THE UNITED STATES ARMY ................ 41 The Army's Place in the National Defense Structure ......... 42 The Far East Command ....................................... 46 IV. THE COMMUNIST CHALLENGE ...................................... 61 The Intelligence Failure ................................... 61 MacArthur's Reaction ....................................... 65 The United States Responds ................................. 66 Emergency Evacuation ....................................... 71 ADCOM Arrives in Korea ..................................... 71 Developments in Washington ................................. 72 MacArthur Visits Korea ..................................... 74 CINCFE's Personal Report ................................... 77 V. EMERGENCY CONDITIONS, EMERGENCY MEASURES ...................... 80 MacArthur's Estimates ...................................... 83 The Build-up ............................................... 86 VI. A NEW CONFIDENCE ............................................. 100 First Visit From Washington ................................ 105 Air Operations-July 1950 ................................... 108 The Withdrawal Continues ................................... 111 VII. BOLSTERING THE FORCES ....................................... 115 Shaping the Unified Command ................................ 115 Rebuilding the U.S. Army ................................... 117 The Theater Scene - August 1950 ............................ 125 VIII. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE CONCEPT AND THE PLAN ............... 139 IX. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE FORCES ............................... 155 Marine Forces .............................................. 159 The 7th Division ........................................... 165 Airborne Units ............................................. 168 The Assault in Readiness ................................... 171 X. CROSSING THE PARALLEL: THE DECISION AND THE PLAN .............. 173 The Tide Turns ............................................. 173 The 38th Parallel-Genesis of the Decision .................. 177 The ROK Government Returns to Seoul ........................ 184 New Operations Plans ....................................... 187 XI. THE INVASION OF NORTH KOREA ................................. 193 The United Nations Resolution of 7 October ................. 193 MacArthur's Plans Change ................................... 194 The Likelihood of Chinese Intervention ..................... 196 Eighth Army Enters North Korea ............................. 202 The X Corps Prepares ....................................... 206 A New Obstacle ............................................. 208 The Wake Island Conference ................................. 210 XII. SIGNS OF VICTORY ........................................... 215 New Plans of Advance ....................................... 215 Another Change ............................................. 218 X Corps Lands .............................................. 219 Occupation Plans ........................................... 219 The Mirage of Victory ...................................... 221 XIII. THE CHINESE TAKE A HAND .................................... 233 The Chinese Move ........................................... 233 Eighth Army Grows Cautious ................................. 234 X Corps and the New Enemy .................................. 236 Immediate Effects .......................................... 237 A Time for Reappraisal ..................................... 239 The Sanctuary and Hot Pursuit .............................. 247 The Mission Is Re-examined ................................. 250 XIV. THE THRESHOLD OF VICTORY .................................... 257 Eighth Army's Plans and Problems ........................... 257 The X Corps Plan ........................................... 259 The Cautious View .......................................... 266 MacArthur Attacks .......................................... 271 XV. FACING NEW DILEMMAS .......................................... 274 Intervention ............................................... 274 Emergency Meeting - Tokyo .................................. 278 Collins Visits Korea ....................................... 282 MacArthur Is Warned ........................................ 284 High Level Conferences ..................................... 285 XVI. THE BRINK OF DISASTER ....................................... 294 Reinforcement Prospects .................................... 294 Possibility of Evacuation .................................. 298 X Corps Is Ordered Out of North Korea ...................... 300 Ridgway Takes Over ......................................... 306 A Decision Hangs Fire ...................................... 308 The Joint Chiefs of Staff Consider Options ................. 310 Evacuation Plans ........................................... 312 XVII. THE SEARCH FOR POLICY ...................................... 315 The Retaliatory Measures: An Examination ................... 317 The Joint Chiefs Visit Tokyo Again ......................... 325 Encouraging Signs in Korea ................................. 326 The 12 January Memo ........................................ 328 XVIII. THE UNITED NATIONS STRIKE BACK ............................ 331 The Combat Scene ........................................... 333 The Improved Outlook ....................................... 348 XIX. THE CROSSROADS .............................................. 349 The 38th Parallel Again .................................... 351 Advances in Korea .......................................... 354 Seeking More Forces ........................................ 356 President Truman Is Displeased ............................. 357 Bevin and the British View ................................. 360 Ridgway Re-enters North Korea .............................. 361 XX. THE RELIEF OF MACARTHUR ...................................... 365 The Formosa Issue .......................................... 367 MacArthur's Disagreement With United States Policy in Korea 371 XXI. NEW DIRECTION, NEW POLICY ................................... 378 The Chinese Offensive - 22 April ........................... 379 Missions and Responsibilities-CINCUNC ...................... 380 New Orders for CINCUNC ..................................... 382 A New Directive for CINCFE ................................. 385 The Chinese Attack Again ................................... 387 Efforts at Political Settlement ............................ 390 Rebuilding the ROK Army .................................... 394 Revision of Ridgway's Directives ........................... 395 XXII. SIGNS OF ARMISTICE ......................................... 397 Political Factors Influence the Battle Line ................ 399 Moves Toward Negotiation ................................... 402 The Prognosis .............................................. 405 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ............................................. 407 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................ 412 BASIC MILITARY MAP SYMBOLS ....................................... 415 Index ............................................................ 417 Color Maps No. Page I. The North Korean Invasion, 25 June-4 August 1950 .............. 61 II. The Defeat of the North Korean Forces, 15-30 September 1950 .. 173 III. U.N. Forces Advance to the Yalu, 30 September- 1 November 1950 ............................................. 205 IV. The November Offensive, 6-26 November 1950 ................... 274 V. The CCF Offensive, 25-28 November 1950 ........................ 274 VI. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 31 December 1950- 24 January 1951 .............................................. 308 VII. U.N. Command Strikes Back, 25 January-21 April 1951 ......... 334 VIII. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 21 April-19 May 1951 ........ 380 IX. U.N. Command Offensive, 20 May-24 June 1951 .................. 389 Illustrations Page Syngman Rhee ..................................................... 6 Kim Koo .......................................................... 6 General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ............................ 15 Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge ........................................... 16 Parade Held by Koreans for the American Advance Party ............ 17 Russian Member Addresses U.S.-USSR Commission in Seoul ........... 20 South Korean Mob Protests Proposed Trusteeship ................... 21 Kim Il Sung ...................................................... 23 A South Korean Woman Casts Her Ballot ............................ 27 Ambassador Muccio With General Coulter ........................... 28 Members of the Korean Constabulary in Training at Taegu .......... 31 The Joint Chiefs of Staff, November 1949 ......................... 44 Dai Ichi Building, Tokyo ......................................... 48 Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker ........................................ 49 Dean G. Acheson .................... ............................. 51 General J. Lawton Collins ........................................ 57 Louis A. Johnson ................................................. 68 Maj. Gen. John H. Church ......................................... 72 Generals MacArthur and Almond Confer With Ambassador Muccio ...... 75 Lt. Gen. Charles L. Bolte ........................................ 76 Members of the 25th Division En Route to the Battle Front on 14 July 1950 .................................................... 85 Lt. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer ................................... 109 Refugees Fleeing From the Combat Area Near Taegu ................. 111 Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker and Maj. Gen. William F. Dean .......... 113 American Artillerymen Protecting Pusan Perimeter ................. 126 Replacements Board a Transport Plane at a Japanese Air Base for Shipment to Korea ............................................... 128 Maj. Gen. Edwin K. Wright ........................................ 140 Maj. Gen. Hobart R. Gay .......................................... 140 Rear Adm. James H. Doyle ......................................... 141 A Russian-Made T-34 Tank Knocked Out in Taejon ................... 142 Maj. Gen. Oliver P. Smith ........................................ 147 Lt. Gen. Lemuel C. Shepherd ...................................... 151 Vice Adm. C. Turner Joy .......................................... 152 Admiral Arthur W. Radford Conferring With General MacArthur ...... 156 Vice Adm. Dewey Struble .......................................... 172 A Russian-Made 76-mm. Gun in Fortified Position on Wolmi Island .. 174 Inch'on Railroad Station After Bombardment by U.N. Naval Vessels . 175 LST's Unloading on Wolmi Island .................................. 176 George C. Marshall ............................................... 180 Rhee Expresses Appreciation to General MacArthur at Liberation Ceremonies ...................................................... 186 Chou En-lai ...................................................... 198 Secretary of the Army Frank Pace, Jr., Arrives at Seoul Airbase .. 201 Maj. Gen. Leven C. Allen ......................................... 202 Tanks and Infantrymen Pursue Communist-Led North Korean Forces ... 203 U.S. Troops Pass Supply Wagons Abandoned by the North Koreans .... 204 Minesweeper Blows Up in Wonsan Harbor ............................ 210 Radford, MacArthur, Pace, and Bradley at Wake Island Conference .. 211 President Truman ................................................. 213 Equipment Air-Dropped in the Sunch'on Drop Zone .................. 217 Canadian Troops Cross the Imjin River ............................ 226 Troop Replacements From Thailand Arrive at Pusan ................. 227 Brig. Gen. Paik Sun Yup .......................................... 234 U.S. Men and Tanks Advance Through Hyesanjin ..................... 264 Thanksgiving Day Services on Bank of Yalu River .................. 265 Tracked Amphibious Vehicles Coming Off the Beach at Hungnam ...... 302 USS Begor Ready To Load as Explosion Rips Harbor Installations ... 303 Vehicles To Be Loaded Aboard Ships at Hungnam .................... 305 Korean Refugees Slog Through Snow ................................ 309 U.S. Infantrymen Enter the Walled City of Suwon .................. 334 Maj. Gen. William O. Reeder and Maj. Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor Are Greeted by Maj. Gen. Henry I. Hodes ............................. 337 Troops Pile Into Assault Boats To Cross the Han River ............ 355 Directing Artillery Fire on Chinese Positions .................... 361 General MacArthur Is Greeted by Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway ...... 362 General MacArthur Receives Warm Welcome on his Return to the United States ................................................... 366 General Ridgway .................................................. 375 Lt. Gen. James A. Van Fleet ...................................... 376 Buildings Burning in Village North of Ch'unch'on ................. 388 Illustrations are from Department of Defense files.

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UNITED STATES ARMY IN THE KOREAN WAR