UNITED STATES ARMY IN THE KOREAN WAR
POLICY AND DIRECTION:
THE FIRST YEAR
by
James F. Schnabel
CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY
UNITED STATES ARMY
WASHINGTON, D. C., 1992
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 70-6O9930
First Printed 1972-CMH Pub 20-1-1
ISBN 0-16-035955-4
This volume describes the initial direction and strategy of the first major
though limited war that the United States was to fight on the continent of Asia
in the era of global tension that followed World War II. There are marked
similarities as well as some basic differences between the war in Korea and the
war that would follow a decade later in Southeast Asia, and certainly the study
of both is necessary to understand the limitations on armed conflict under the
shadow of nuclear holocaust. One can also discern in this volume the importance
of individuals in altering the course of human events and the fate of nations,
the wider concerns that preclude the massing by a world power of its military
strength in one direction, and many other facets of the nation's recent military
history it behooves all thoughtful Americans to ponder.
Colonel Schnabel's work is the third to appear in a planned 5-volume history
of the United States Army in the Korean War. It complements the detailed account
of operations from June to November 1950, South to the Naktong, North to the
Yalu, published in 1961, and the sequel to it still in preparation that will
cover tactical operations through June 1951. The volume entitled Truce Tent
and Fighting Front, published in 1966, covers the last two years of the war,
and a logistical history of the Korean conflict is also scheduled to appear.
Both military and civilian students and the scholarly reading public should
find in this book much that is illuminating and provocative of reflection, and
not only about events that happened more than two decades ago.
Washington, D.C. JAMES L. COLLINS, JR.
15 May 1971 Brigadier General, USA
Chief of Military History
James F. Schnabel enlisted in the U.S. Army in July 1942 and, after
graduation from officer candidate school, the Field Artillery School, Fort Sill,
Oklahoma, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Remaining in
the service after World War II, he was assigned, as a captain, to the Military
History Section, GHQ, FEC, in late 1949. He served as a historian in Tokyo until
1953, transferring in May 1953 to the Office of the Chief of Military History,
U.S. Army, in Washington, D.C., where he remained until 1956. From 1956 until
1960 as a lieutenant colonel he held the post of Chief Historian, Supreme
Headquarters, Allied Powers, Europe, and Allied Command Europe stationed in
Paris, France. In 1960 he returned to the Office, Chief of Military History, and
became Historical Liaison Officer to the Office of the Chief of Staff, U.S.
Army. He retired from the Army in 1964 and is presently a historian with the
Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
A graduate of North Idaho Teachers College, Colonel Schnabel has published
several articles on the Korean War and has appeared as a guest lecturer at the
Army War College.
This book is intended to elucidate United States policy during the Korean War
and to describe the strategies and command methods by which that policy was
carried out. The major decisions that determined the United States course in
Korea and continued to influence the nation's responses to Communist aggression
during the two decades that followed were taken during the first twelve months
of the Korean fighting. Although the war continued for another two years, no
significant change was made in the policy developed between President Truman's
decision to intervene in June 1950 and the beginning of Armistice negotiations
at Kaesong in July 1951. This book concentrates on that initial period.
One of the unique aspects of the Korean War was the close control which
Washington maintained at all times over operations in the field. Routine
transactions and problems which during World War II would have been handled by a
theater commander became, during Korea, matters of great concern to the nation's
highest officials in Washington. These exceptional practices were owing in large
part to the scarcity of United States military resources when the war began and
to the real danger that a miscalculation in Korea might result in a full-scale
war with the Soviet Union and/or Communist China. The vast distance between
Washington and the Far East served to hinder effective, timely communication,
further complicating the problems of directing the war.
I was not aware of it at the time, but work on this book began three days
after the North Korean invasion when I, as an Army captain of artillery assigned
to the Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC, in Tokyo, was called to General
MacArthur's personal file room in the Dai Ichi Building to examine copies of
first teleconferences between CINCFE and Washington. Notes taken that day marked
the beginning of nearly three years of research in Tokyo and, briefly, in Korea.
Upon my return to Washington in mid-1953 I was designated to prepare the present
volume. The first draft of this work was submitted to the Office, Chief of
Military History, in June 1956 concurrently with my transfer to Paris, where I
served until June 1960 as Chief Historian, SHAPE and Allied Command Europe.
Returning to the Office of the Chief of Military History in July 1960 I was
able, although assigned additional duties, to make revisions indicated as a
result of the intensive review and criticism of the manuscript that had taken
place in my four-year absence. Following my retirement from the Army in August
1964 further revision was performed by Mr. Billy C. Mossman and by Dr. Stetson
Conn, then Chief Historian.
So many individuals have contributed to the present volume that it would be
impossible for me to thank all of them publicly. There are those, however, to
whom I owe special debts of gratitude. During the early years of my work on this
history I received particular encouragement and very wise counsel from Col.
Allison R. Hartman, then Chief, Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC. Among those
outside critics who have reviewed all or part of the manuscript in its various
stages and to whom I am indebted for valuable comments and ideas are General J.
Lawton Collins, General Matthew B. Ridgway, Lt. Gen. Edward M. Almond, Mr.
Robert Amory, formerly Deputy for Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, and
Mr. Wilber W. Hoare, Jr., Chief, Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Other individuals within the Office of the Chief of Military History whose
help and advice have been exceptionally valuable to me include the Editor in
Chief, Mr. Joseph R. Friedman, whose literary guidance has contributed greatly
in the final revision of the manuscript; Mr. Charles V. P. von Luttichau, who is
responsible for the fine maps which accompany the text; Dr. Louis Morton and Dr.
John Miller, jr., for their suggestions and criticism while they were with the
Office of the Chief of Military History; Mr. David Jaffe, whose diligence and
skill as an editor I have good reason to appreciate; and Mrs. Stephanie B.
Demma, who rendered most able assistance to Mr. Jaffe. The index was prepared by
Mr. Nicholas J. Anthony.
Finally, I would be remiss were I not to recognize gratefully the support I
received from the several Chiefs of Military History under whom I served during
the preparation of this volume: Maj. Gen. Orlando Ward, Maj. Gen. Albert C.
Smith, Brig. Gen. James A. Norell, Brig. Gen. William H. Harris, and Brig. Gen.
Hal C. Pattison.
That I have acknowledged the contributions made by those persons named above
in no way implies that they share responsibility for the interpretations of this
book or for any deficiencies that it may have. Responsibility for them is mine
alone.
Washington, D.C. JAMES F. SCHNABEL
15 May 1971
Contents
Forward
The Author
Preface
I. KOREA, CASE HISTORY OF A PAWN ................................ 1
The Land ................................................... 1
Korea's Past ............................................... 2
The United States and Korea ................................ 3
Korea 1945 ................................................. 6
The New Zones .............................................. 11
II. THE HOUSE DIVIDED ............... ............................ 13
The Americans Occupy South Korea ........................... 13
The Russians in North Korea ................................ 23
The United States Seeks a Solution ......................... 25
Withdrawal From Korea ...................................... 28
Building a Native Defense Force in South Korea ............. 31
North Korea Prepares ....................................... 36
Situation in Korea-June 1950 ............................... 38
III. NATIONAL DEFENSE AND THE UNITED STATES ARMY ................ 41
The Army's Place in the National Defense Structure ......... 42
The Far East Command ....................................... 46
IV. THE COMMUNIST CHALLENGE ...................................... 61
The Intelligence Failure ................................... 61
MacArthur's Reaction ....................................... 65
The United States Responds ................................. 66
Emergency Evacuation ....................................... 71
ADCOM Arrives in Korea ..................................... 71
Developments in Washington ................................. 72
MacArthur Visits Korea ..................................... 74
CINCFE's Personal Report ................................... 77
V. EMERGENCY CONDITIONS, EMERGENCY MEASURES ...................... 80
MacArthur's Estimates ...................................... 83
The Build-up ............................................... 86
VI. A NEW CONFIDENCE ............................................. 100
First Visit From Washington ................................ 105
Air Operations-July 1950 ................................... 108
The Withdrawal Continues ................................... 111
VII. BOLSTERING THE FORCES ....................................... 115
Shaping the Unified Command ................................ 115
Rebuilding the U.S. Army ................................... 117
The Theater Scene - August 1950 ............................ 125
VIII. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE CONCEPT AND THE PLAN ............... 139
IX. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE FORCES ............................... 155
Marine Forces .............................................. 159
The 7th Division ........................................... 165
Airborne Units ............................................. 168
The Assault in Readiness ................................... 171
X. CROSSING THE PARALLEL: THE DECISION AND THE PLAN .............. 173
The Tide Turns ............................................. 173
The 38th Parallel-Genesis of the Decision .................. 177
The ROK Government Returns to Seoul ........................ 184
New Operations Plans ....................................... 187
XI. THE INVASION OF NORTH KOREA ................................. 193
The United Nations Resolution of 7 October ................. 193
MacArthur's Plans Change ................................... 194
The Likelihood of Chinese Intervention ..................... 196
Eighth Army Enters North Korea ............................. 202
The X Corps Prepares ....................................... 206
A New Obstacle ............................................. 208
The Wake Island Conference ................................. 210
XII. SIGNS OF VICTORY ........................................... 215
New Plans of Advance ....................................... 215
Another Change ............................................. 218
X Corps Lands .............................................. 219
Occupation Plans ........................................... 219
The Mirage of Victory ...................................... 221
XIII. THE CHINESE TAKE A HAND .................................... 233
The Chinese Move ........................................... 233
Eighth Army Grows Cautious ................................. 234
X Corps and the New Enemy .................................. 236
Immediate Effects .......................................... 237
A Time for Reappraisal ..................................... 239
The Sanctuary and Hot Pursuit .............................. 247
The Mission Is Re-examined ................................. 250
XIV. THE THRESHOLD OF VICTORY .................................... 257
Eighth Army's Plans and Problems ........................... 257
The X Corps Plan ........................................... 259
The Cautious View .......................................... 266
MacArthur Attacks .......................................... 271
XV. FACING NEW DILEMMAS .......................................... 274
Intervention ............................................... 274
Emergency Meeting - Tokyo .................................. 278
Collins Visits Korea ....................................... 282
MacArthur Is Warned ........................................ 284
High Level Conferences ..................................... 285
XVI. THE BRINK OF DISASTER ....................................... 294
Reinforcement Prospects .................................... 294
Possibility of Evacuation .................................. 298
X Corps Is Ordered Out of North Korea ...................... 300
Ridgway Takes Over ......................................... 306
A Decision Hangs Fire ...................................... 308
The Joint Chiefs of Staff Consider Options ................. 310
Evacuation Plans ........................................... 312
XVII. THE SEARCH FOR POLICY ...................................... 315
The Retaliatory Measures: An Examination ................... 317
The Joint Chiefs Visit Tokyo Again ......................... 325
Encouraging Signs in Korea ................................. 326
The 12 January Memo ........................................ 328
XVIII. THE UNITED NATIONS STRIKE BACK ............................ 331
The Combat Scene ........................................... 333
The Improved Outlook ....................................... 348
XIX. THE CROSSROADS .............................................. 349
The 38th Parallel Again .................................... 351
Advances in Korea .......................................... 354
Seeking More Forces ........................................ 356
President Truman Is Displeased ............................. 357
Bevin and the British View ................................. 360
Ridgway Re-enters North Korea .............................. 361
XX. THE RELIEF OF MACARTHUR ...................................... 365
The Formosa Issue .......................................... 367
MacArthur's Disagreement With United States Policy in Korea 371
XXI. NEW DIRECTION, NEW POLICY ................................... 378
The Chinese Offensive - 22 April ........................... 379
Missions and Responsibilities-CINCUNC ...................... 380
New Orders for CINCUNC ..................................... 382
A New Directive for CINCFE ................................. 385
The Chinese Attack Again ................................... 387
Efforts at Political Settlement ............................ 390
Rebuilding the ROK Army .................................... 394
Revision of Ridgway's Directives ........................... 395
XXII. SIGNS OF ARMISTICE ......................................... 397
Political Factors Influence the Battle Line ................ 399
Moves Toward Negotiation ................................... 402
The Prognosis .............................................. 405
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ............................................. 407
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................ 412
BASIC MILITARY MAP SYMBOLS ....................................... 415
Index ............................................................ 417
Color Maps
No. Page
I. The North Korean Invasion, 25 June-4 August 1950 .............. 61
II. The Defeat of the North Korean Forces, 15-30 September 1950 .. 173
III. U.N. Forces Advance to the Yalu, 30 September-
1 November 1950 ............................................. 205
IV. The November Offensive, 6-26 November 1950 ................... 274
V. The CCF Offensive, 25-28 November 1950 ........................ 274
VI. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 31 December 1950-
24 January 1951 .............................................. 308
VII. U.N. Command Strikes Back, 25 January-21 April 1951 ......... 334
VIII. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 21 April-19 May 1951 ........ 380
IX. U.N. Command Offensive, 20 May-24 June 1951 .................. 389
Illustrations
Page
Syngman Rhee ..................................................... 6
Kim Koo .......................................................... 6
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ............................ 15
Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge ........................................... 16
Parade Held by Koreans for the American Advance Party ............ 17
Russian Member Addresses U.S.-USSR Commission in Seoul ........... 20
South Korean Mob Protests Proposed Trusteeship ................... 21
Kim Il Sung ...................................................... 23
A South Korean Woman Casts Her Ballot ............................ 27
Ambassador Muccio With General Coulter ........................... 28
Members of the Korean Constabulary in Training at Taegu .......... 31
The Joint Chiefs of Staff, November 1949 ......................... 44
Dai Ichi Building, Tokyo ......................................... 48
Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker ........................................ 49
Dean G. Acheson .................... ............................. 51
General J. Lawton Collins ........................................ 57
Louis A. Johnson ................................................. 68
Maj. Gen. John H. Church ......................................... 72
Generals MacArthur and Almond Confer With Ambassador Muccio ...... 75
Lt. Gen. Charles L. Bolte ........................................ 76
Members of the 25th Division En Route to the Battle Front on
14 July 1950 .................................................... 85
Lt. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer ................................... 109
Refugees Fleeing From the Combat Area Near Taegu ................. 111
Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker and Maj. Gen. William F. Dean .......... 113
American Artillerymen Protecting Pusan Perimeter ................. 126
Replacements Board a Transport Plane at a Japanese Air Base for
Shipment to Korea ............................................... 128
Maj. Gen. Edwin K. Wright ........................................ 140
Maj. Gen. Hobart R. Gay .......................................... 140
Rear Adm. James H. Doyle ......................................... 141
A Russian-Made T-34 Tank Knocked Out in Taejon ................... 142
Maj. Gen. Oliver P. Smith ........................................ 147
Lt. Gen. Lemuel C. Shepherd ...................................... 151
Vice Adm. C. Turner Joy .......................................... 152
Admiral Arthur W. Radford Conferring With General MacArthur ...... 156
Vice Adm. Dewey Struble .......................................... 172
A Russian-Made 76-mm. Gun in Fortified Position on Wolmi Island .. 174
Inch'on Railroad Station After Bombardment by U.N. Naval Vessels . 175
LST's Unloading on Wolmi Island .................................. 176
George C. Marshall ............................................... 180
Rhee Expresses Appreciation to General MacArthur at Liberation
Ceremonies ...................................................... 186
Chou En-lai ...................................................... 198
Secretary of the Army Frank Pace, Jr., Arrives at Seoul Airbase .. 201
Maj. Gen. Leven C. Allen ......................................... 202
Tanks and Infantrymen Pursue Communist-Led North Korean Forces ... 203
U.S. Troops Pass Supply Wagons Abandoned by the North Koreans .... 204
Minesweeper Blows Up in Wonsan Harbor ............................ 210
Radford, MacArthur, Pace, and Bradley at Wake Island Conference .. 211
President Truman ................................................. 213
Equipment Air-Dropped in the Sunch'on Drop Zone .................. 217
Canadian Troops Cross the Imjin River ............................ 226
Troop Replacements From Thailand Arrive at Pusan ................. 227
Brig. Gen. Paik Sun Yup .......................................... 234
U.S. Men and Tanks Advance Through Hyesanjin ..................... 264
Thanksgiving Day Services on Bank of Yalu River .................. 265
Tracked Amphibious Vehicles Coming Off the Beach at Hungnam ...... 302
USS Begor Ready To Load as Explosion Rips Harbor Installations ... 303
Vehicles To Be Loaded Aboard Ships at Hungnam .................... 305
Korean Refugees Slog Through Snow ................................ 309
U.S. Infantrymen Enter the Walled City of Suwon .................. 334
Maj. Gen. William O. Reeder and Maj. Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor Are
Greeted by Maj. Gen. Henry I. Hodes ............................. 337
Troops Pile Into Assault Boats To Cross the Han River ............ 355
Directing Artillery Fire on Chinese Positions .................... 361
General MacArthur Is Greeted by Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway ...... 362
General MacArthur Receives Warm Welcome on his Return to the
United States ................................................... 366
General Ridgway .................................................. 375
Lt. Gen. James A. Van Fleet ...................................... 376
Buildings Burning in Village North of Ch'unch'on ................. 388
Illustrations are from Department of Defense files.